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This article continues the examination of the development of Online Dispute Resolution (ODR) in India, building on the foundational period covered in the preceding piece, which detailed the years 2002–2012. That earlier phase laid the groundwork through initial techno-legal frameworks, early platforms for grievance handling, and sector-specific pilots, such as the establishment of ODR India in 2004 and e-Courts initiatives in 2005. The current analysis focuses exclusively on Phase 2 (2013–October 14, 2025), a period characterised by the institutionalisation of ODR, driven by e-commerce growth, regulatory mandates, judicial support, and the acceleration of digital processes during the COVID-19 pandemic. Developments from Phase 1 are referenced only where entities demonstrated verifiable continuity into this phase.
Phase Demarcation
Phase 1 (2002–2012) emphasised experimental applications and basic infrastructure for digital mediation and arbitration, primarily in e-commerce and grievance redressal. In contrast, Phase 2 (2013–October 14, 2025) saw ODR transition to a scalable, policy-integrated system for resolving commercial, consumer, and micro, small, and medium enterprises (MSME) disputes. This evolution was marked by statutory recognitions, platform expansions, and integrations with artificial intelligence (AI) and multilingual tools, addressing over 22 million cases nationwide through Online Lok Adalats and related ODR mechanisms since 2021 to alleviate court backlogs.
Continuations From Phase 1 Into Phase 2
Among the entities active in Phase 1, Perry4Law Organisation (P4LO) and Perry4Law Techno-Legal Base (PTLB) maintained documented ODR activities into Phase 2, building on the Techno Legal Centre of Excellence for Online Dispute Resolution in India, launched in October 2012. These efforts extended to portals for international trade disputes, stock market conflicts, and cryptocurrency resolutions by 2025, as part of broader techno-legal initiatives under P4LO and PTLB. The Centre of Excellence for Protection of Human Rights in Cyberspace (CEPHRC), also under P4LO and PTLB, incorporated ODR elements for cyber-related Human Rights issues, such as privacy and surveillance disputes. Recent CEPHRC publications, including analyses on algorithmic bias in AI-driven surveillance, programmable central bank digital currencies (CBDCs) like India’s e-Rupee, and digital identity systems dated as late as October 4–6, 2025, highlight ongoing applications of ODR in cyberspace governance, addressing risks like surveillance and exclusion in digital ecosystems. These continuations underscore P4LO and PTLB’s role in bridging Phase 1’s foundational work—such as the ODR India project launched in 2004—with Phase 2’s regulatory and technological advancements. No other individuals or organisations from Phase 1 sustained ODR-specific efforts into this period.
See Evolution Of Online Dispute Resolution In India: Phase 2 (2013–October 14, 2025) post for more.
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